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Commercial flying didn’t become safer because airplanes got better. Commercial flying is safer because decision-making has been standardized.
However, the accident rate in general aviation remains significantly higher than its commercial counterpart.
This disparity highlights a crucial difference in operational philosophy: the use of standard operating procedures (SOPs). But what exactly are SOPs, and how can general aviation benefit from the airline model?
According to the FAA, SOPs are essential, step-by-step guides for consistent, predictable, and safe aviation operations (FAA AC 120-71B).
They are used every day in many different industries, as they make different processes a lot easier to replicate. This allows for better and easier training for new personnel, and provides a more predictable and measurable outcome. A hospital might have SOPs for admitting a patient into the ER, and SOPs for evaluating the condition of the patient, which will determine the steps to follow.
Banks and law firms might have SOPs on how to handle sensitive information and how to discard documents, so that the information of their clients is kept safe and confidential.
In aviation, particularly in part 121, there are SOPs for pretty much everyone involved, including the ramp crew, fueler, dispatcher, gate agents, flight attendants, and of course the pilots.
Shared Mental Model
For the pilots, SOPs provide guidance on how to conduct every phase of flight. They help convert the complex task of operating an aircraft into a structured and predictable workplace. This gives pilots a shared mental model, where everyone knows exactly what he or she is supposed to do at any given moment.
Workload is reduced as the tasks are clearly divided for the PM or the PF. Tasks can also be delegated. Because both pilots are on the same page, they know what’s coming next.
Airlines with different types of aircraft implement SOPs that are transferable to different fleets, which makes the transition of pilots from one airframe to another a lot more manageable.
Stabilized Approach Criteria
Any airline will have on its SOPs a stabilized approach criteria. Within the same manual, the definition of stabilized approach will be given.
The stabilized approach criteria in most cases include a certain speed, a lateral and vertical track, and a specific aircraft configuration that must be met to be considered “stable.” It will also include the actions to be taken in case of an “unstable” approach, which for most airlines is a go-around.
Sometimes it might even include a diagram to better exemplify the concept. Below is an example of what the stabilized approach criteria look like within an airline manual.
| At 1,000’ above TDZE: The PM will announce “1,000 STABLE.” No response is required from the PF if the following criteria are met. All of the following conditions must be achieved prior to or upon reaching 1,000’ above TDZE, and maintained thereafter until landing: – The aircraft is on the correct lateral flight path. – The aircraft is on the correct vertical flight path. – The aircraft is the intended landing configuration with the Landing Checklist complete. – The airspeed does not exceed +20/-5 and trending toward “Target Speed.” – The thrust is stabilized, usually above idle, in order to maintain the target approach speed along the desired final approach path. – No excessive flight parameter deviation(s), as defined below. – “COURSE” if the course deviation is greater than the following: – For CAT II/III ILS approach, 1/3 dot. – For CAT I ILS or LOC approach, 1/2 dot. – For VOR approach, 2 1/2°. – “BANK” if the bank angle becomes greater than 7°: – “GLIDESLOPE” if the G/S deviation is greater than the following: – For CAT II/III ILS approach,1/3 dot. – For CAT I ILS approach, 1/2 dot. – “SINK RATE” if the descent rate becomes greater than 1,000 ft/ min., unless required by the normal approach profile and previously briefed. – “PITCH” if the pitch attitude becomes less than -2.5° or greater than: – 10° nose up – “SPEED” if the speed becomes greater than the speed target +20 KT, or less than the speed target -5 KT. | υ If Stabilized Approach Criteria are not met and exceed minor deviations: • The PM must announce, “1,000, UNSTABLE GO AROUND.” • The PF must initiate a go-around and announce “GO-AROUND FLAPS.” Below 1,000’ above TDZE: The following conditions must be maintained below 1000′ above TDZE until landing: – All of the previous criteria apply, except that airspeed will be further limited to +10/-5 KT of “Target Speed.” – The aircraft is aligned with the extended centerline of the landing runway, unless otherwise required by the prescribed procedure. The PM shall call out any of the previously described flight parameter deviations, and also: – “CENTERLINE” if not aligned with the extended centerline, unless otherwise required by the local approach procedure and previously briefed. – “BANK” if the bank angle becomes greater than 7°, unless required by the local approach procedure and previously briefed. – “SPEED” if the speed becomes greater than the speed target +10 KT, or less than the speed target -5 KT. – In addition, The PM will monitor or announce “500.” The PM should call “500” if the pin-programmed 500’ RA callout does not approximate 500’ above TDZE. υ If at any point below 1,000′ above TDZE Stabilized Approach Criteria are not met and the exceeded parameter cannot be IMMEDIATELY corrected: • The PM must announce, “UNSTABLE GO-AROUND.” • The PF must initiate a go-around and announce “GO-AROUND FLAPS.” |
These criteria are very generic, which allows them to be used across multiple aircraft types.
And just like this, airlines have thousands of pages in their manuals. Everything you can think of has already been addressed, which allows crew members to make decisions aligned with their company’s policies.
There is room for the implementation of similar SOPs in part 91.
GA aircraft are now more capable than ever before. Some single engine piston airplanes now come equipped with FIKI, parachute systems that have a minimum safe altitude for deployment. Single engine turboprops capable of cruising at FL 310 and taking off from a Class B airport will go back home to land on a 3,000-foot runway.
All of these capabilities are in the hands of an owner-operator who, in a lot of cases, will fly their airplanes once or twice per month. Proficiency and currency are not the same thing, and going to the simulator every 12 months, unfortunately, is not enough to stay proficient. And to make things worse, GA is a one-man or one-woman show. The pilot is the dispatcher, sometimes the fueler, the ramper who loads the bags, the flight attendant that does the safety briefings, and of course the pilot.
To add to the mix, in many cases, there is a family reunion, a business meeting, a child’s birthday, or another important event behind the flight. “Get there-itis” can play a part.
SOPs allow the pilot to rely on written policies and procedures and move away from memory, personal minimums, and “feeling.” On the other hand, when flying single pilot, you don’t have anyone to cross-check your decisions or inputs, and this increases your susceptibility to confirmation bias and memory lapses, without anyone to question you or “have your back.” SOPs can act as a virtual co-pilot. They make it easier for the pilot to detect when their performance deviates from the safe norm.
Having written SOPs for your specific aircraft, experience level, typical mission, and environment, among other factors, can be very beneficial in increasing the level of safety in every flight.
Standard operating procedures reduce your workload, the number of decisions you have to make, and your reliance on memory to perform certain actions. They also provide hard minimums instead of personal minimums and increase your safety margins, which reduces risk.
Don’t commit your safety to memory, a checklist, and gut feeling. While standard operating procedures in Part 91 may be voluntary, adopting them is a critical step in professionalizing your flight operations and ensuring a secure environment for all. Start developing your own tailored policies to elevate your level of professionalism for every flight.
